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Chances 可能性
Probability is the likelihood or chance that something is the case or will happen. Theoretical Probability is used extensively in areas such as statistics, mathematics, science and philosophy to draw conclusions about the likelihood of potential events and the underlying mechanics of complex systems.
The word probability does not have a consistent direct definition. In fact, there are two broad categories of probability interpretations, whose adherents possess different (and sometimes conflicting) views about the fundamental nature of probability:
Frequentists talk about probabilities only when dealing with well defined random experiments. The probability of a random event denotes the relative frequency of occurrence of an experiment's outcome, when repeating the experiment. Frequentists consider probability to be the relative frequency "in the long run" of outcomes.
Bayesians, however, assign probabilities to any statement whatsoever, even when no random process is involved. Probability, for a Bayesian, is a way to represent an individual's degree of belief in a statement, given the evidence.
Probability has an interesting etymology. Its meaning today is almost the opposite of the meaning of the word from which it originated. Before the seventeenth century, legal evidence in Europe was considered to greater weight if a person testifying had “probity”. “empirical evidence” was barely a concept. Probity was a measure of authority, so evidence came from authority. A noble person had probity. Yet today, probability is the very measure of the weight of empirical evidence in science, arrived at from inductive or statistical inference.
可能性は、何かが本当であるか、起こるという見込みまたは可能性です。理論的なProbabilityが、地域（例えば潜在的イベントの見込みと複雑なシステムの根底にある機構について結論を出す統計、数学、科学と哲学）で、広範囲に使われます。語可能性は、一貫した直接の定義を持ちません。実際、支持者が可能性の基本的な性質について異なる（そして、時々矛盾する）見解を備えている可能性解釈の2つの幅広いカテゴリーが、あります：はっきりしたランダムな実験に対処する時だけ、Frequentistsは可能性について話します。実験を繰り返すとき、ランダムなイベントの可能性は実験の結果の発生の相対度数を意味します。Frequentistsは、可能性が「長い目で見れば」結果の相対的な頻度であると考えます。Bayesians、しかし、ランダムなプロセスが複雑にならないときでも、可能性を全くどんな声明にでも割り当ててください。可能性?ベイズ的な、方法は声明（証拠を与えられる）に対する信頼の個人の程度を表すことになっています。可能性は、面白い語源を持ちます。その意味は、今日、ほとんど、それが始まった語の意味の正反対です。17世紀以前に、証言している人には「清廉潔白」があるならば、ヨーロッパの法的証拠はより大きな重さに考慮されました。「経験的な証拠」は、かろうじて概念でした。清廉潔白はかなりの権限であったので、証拠は権限から来ました。高貴な人には、清廉潔白がありました。それでも、今日、可能性は科学の経験的な証拠の重みのまさしくその基準です。そして、帰納的であるか統計推論から到達されます。
Information 情報
Information as a concept has a diversity of meanings, from everyday usage to technical settings. Generally speaking, the concept of information is closely related to notions of constraint, communication, control, data, form, instruction, knowledge, meaning, mental stimulus, pattern, perception, and representation.
Many people speak about the Information Age as the advent of the Knowledge Age[citation needed][weasel words] or knowledge society, the information society, the Information revolution, and information technologies, and even though informatics, information science and computer science are often in the spotlight, the word "information" is often used without careful consideration of the various meanings it has acquired.
According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the earliest historical meaning of the word information in English was the act of informing, or giving form or shape to the mind, as in education, instruction, or training. A quote from 1387: "Five books come down from heaven for information of mankind." It was also used for an item of training, e.g. a particular instruction. "Melibee had heard the great skills and reasons of Dame Prudence, and her wise information and techniques." (1386)
The English word was apparently derived by adding the common "noun of action" ending "-ation" (descended through French from Latin "-tio") to the earlier verb to inform, in the sense of to give form to the mind, to discipline, instruct, teach: "Men so wise should go and inform their kings." (1330) Inform itself comes (via French) from the Latin verb informare, to give form to, to form an idea of. Furthermore, Latin itself already even contained the word informatio meaning concept or idea, but the extent to which this may have influenced the development of the word information in English is unclear.
As a final note, the ancient Greek word for form was e?d?? eidos, and this word was famously used in a technical philosophical sense by Plato (and later Aristotle) to denote the ideal identity or essence of something (see Theory of forms). "Eidos" can also be associated with thought, proposition or even concept.
Information is the state of a system of interest. Message is the information materialized.
Information is a quality of a message from a sender to one or more receivers. Information is always about something (size of a parameter, occurrence of an event, etc). Viewed in this manner, information does not have to be accurate; it may be a truth or a lie, or just the sound of a falling tree. Even a disruptive noise used to inhibit the flow of communication and create misunderstanding would in this view be a form of information. However, generally speaking, if the amount of information in the received message increases, the message is more accurate.
This model assumes there is a definite sender and at least one receiver. Many refinements of the model assume the existence of a common language understood by the sender and at least one of the receivers. An important variation identifies information as that which would be communicated by a message if it were sent from a sender to a receiver capable of understanding the message. In another variation, it is not required that the sender be capable of understanding the message, or even cognizant that there is a message, making information something that can be extracted from an environment, e.g., through observation, reading or measurement.
Information is a term with many meanings depending on context, but is as a rule closely related to such concepts as meaning, knowledge, instruction, communication, representation, and mental stimulus. Simply stated, information is a message received and understood. In terms of data, it can be defined as a collection of facts from which conclusions may be drawn. There are many other aspects of information since it is the knowledge acquired through study or experience or instruction. But overall, information is the result of processing, manipulating and organizing data in a way that adds to the knowledge of the person receiving it.
Communication theory provides a numerical measure of the uncertainty of an outcome. For example, we can say that "the signal contained thousands of bits of information". Communication theory tends to use the concept of information entropy, generally attributed to C.E. Shannon (see below).
Another form of information is Fisher information, a concept of R.A. Fisher. This is used in application of statistics to estimation theory and to science in general. Fisher information is thought of as the amount of information that a message carries about an unobservable parameter. It can be computed from knowledge of the likelihood function defining the system. For example, with a normal likelihood function, the Fisher information is the reciprocal of the variance of the law. In the absence of knowledge of the likelihood law, the Fisher information may be computed from normally distributed score data as the reciprocal of their second moment.
Even though information and data are often used interchangeably, they are actually very different. Data is a set of unrelated information, and as such is of no use until it is properly evaluated. Upon evaluation, once there is some significant relation between data, and they show some relevance, then they are converted into information. Now this same data can be used for different purposes. Thus, till the data convey some information, they are not useful.
日常的な使用から技術的なセッティングまで、概念としての情報には、意味の多様性があります。一般的に言って、情報の概念は、制約、コミュニケーション、支配、データ、調子、指導、知識、意味、精神的な刺激、パターン、認識と代表の概念に、密接に関連があります。多くの人々はKnowledge時代［必要とされる表彰状］［逃げ口上］または知識社会（情報社会、Information革命と情報テクノロジー）の出現として情報時代について話します、そして、たとえ情報科学、情報科学とコンピューターサイエンスがしばしばスポットライトであるとしても、語「情報」がそれが得たいろいろな意味の慎重な考慮なしでしばしば使われます。オックスフォード英語辞典によると、英語の語情報で最も初期の歴史の意味は、教育、指導またはトレーニングの場合のように、形または形に心に知らせるか、与えることの行為でした。1387からの引用：「5冊の本は、人類の情報のために、天国から降ります。」、Itがトレーニング（例えば特定の指示）のアイテムのためにも使われました。「Melibeeは、すばらしい技術とPrudence夫人と彼女の賢い情報と技術上の理由を聞きました。」英単語が明らかに一般の「行動の名詞」結末を加えて引き出された(1386)「-」知らせる初期の動詞へのation」（ラテンの「-tio」からフランス語を通して下られる）、という意味において、心に調子を与えることは、規律に、指導します、教えてください：「とても賢い男性は、行かなければならなくて、彼らの王に知らせなければなりません。」と、（1330）Inform自体がラテンの動詞informareから浮かびます（フランス語を通して）、調子を与えて、考えを形成するために。さらにまた、ラテン語そのものはすでに概念または考えを意味している語informatioさえ含みました、しかし、これが英語で語情報の発達に影響したかもしれない範囲は不明です。
from wikipedia |
